The modern game of tennis originated in Birmingham, England in the late 19th century as "lawn tennis" which has close connections to various field/lawn games as well as to the ancient game of real tennis. Up to then, "tennis" referred to the latter sport: for example, in Disraeli's novel Sybil (1845), Lord Eugene De Vere announces that he will "go down to Hampton Court and play tennis. As it is the Derby [classic horse race], nobody will be there".[1] After its creation, lawn tennis spread throughout the upper-class English-speaking population before spreading around the world.[2]
The rules of tennis have not changed much since the 1890s. Two exceptions are that from 1908 to 1961 the server had to keep one foot on the ground at all times, and the adoption of the tie-break in the 1970s. A recent addition to professional tennis has been the adoption of electronic review technology coupled with a point challenge system, which allows a player to challenge the line (or chair) umpire's call of a point. Players have unlimited opportunities to challenge provided the challenges made are correct. However, once three incorrect challenges are made in a set, they cannot challenge again until the next set. If the set goes to a tie break, players are given one additional opportunity to challenge the call. This electronic review, currently called Hawk-Eye, is available at a limited number of high-level ATP and WTA tournaments.
Tennis is enjoyed by millions of recreational players and is also a hugely popular worldwide spectator sport, especially the four Grand Slam tournaments (also referred to as the "Majors"): the Australian Open played on hard courts, the French Open played on red clay courts, Wimbledon played on grass courts, and the US Open played also on hard courts.
History
While the modern game of
tennis originated in late 19th century England, most historians believe that
the games ancient origin is from 12th century France, but the ball was then
struck with the palm of the hand. It was not until the 16th century that rackets came into use, and the
game began to be called "tennis", from the Old French term Tenez,
which can be translated as "hold!", "receive!" or
"take!". An interjection
used as a call from the server to his opponent.[3] It was popular in England and France, although the
game was only played indoors where the ball could be hit off the wall. Henry
VIII of England was a big fan of this game, which is now known as real tennis.[4] During the 18th century and early 19th century, as
real tennis declined, new racquets sports emerged in England.[5]Between 1859 and 1865 Harry Gem and his friend Augurio Perera developed a game that combined elements of rackets and the Basque ball game pelota, which they played on Perera's croquet lawn in Birmingham, United Kingdom.[6][7] In 1872, along with two local doctors, they founded the world's first tennis club in Leamington Spa.[8]
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| Lawn tennis in the U.S., 1887 |
In December 1873, Major Walter Clopton Wingfield designed and patented a similar game — which he called sphairistike (Greek: σφάίρίστική, from ancient Greek meaning "skill at playing at ball"), and was soon known simply as "sticky" — for the amusement of his guests at a garden party on his estate of Nantclwyd, in Llanelidan, Wales.[9] Sport historians agree that Wingfield deserves much of the credit for the development of modern tennis.[5][10] The world's oldest tennis tournament, the Wimbledon championships, were first played in London in 1877.[11][12] The first Championships culminated a significant debate on how to standardize the rules.
In America in 1874 Mary Ewing Outerbridge, a young socialite, returned from Bermuda where she met Major Wingfield. She laid out a tennis court at the Staten Island Cricket Club in New Brighton Staten Island, New York. The exact location of the club was under what is now the Staten Island Ferry terminal. The first American National tournament in 1880 was played there. An Englishman named O.E Woodhouse won the singles match. There was also a doubles match which was won by a local pair. There were different rules at each club. The ball in Boston was larger than the one normally used in NY. On May 21, 1881, the United States National Lawn Tennis Association (now the United States Tennis Association) was formed to standardize the rules and organize competitions.[13] The U.S. National Men's Singles Championship, now the US Open, was first held in 1881 at Newport, Rhode Island.[14] The U.S. National Women's Singles Championships were first held in 1887.[15] Tennis was also popular in France, where the French Open dates to 1891.[16] Thus, Wimbledon, the US Open, the French Open, and the Australian Open (dating to 1905) became and have remained the most prestigious events in tennis.[12][17] Together these four events are called the Majors or Slams (a term borrowed from bridge rather than baseball).[18] The comprehensive rules promulgated in 1924 by the International Lawn Tennis Federation, now known as the International Tennis Federation, have remained largely stable in the ensuing eighty years, the one major change being the addition of the tie-break system designed by James Van Alen.[19] That same year, tennis withdrew from the Olympics after the 1924 Games but returned 60 years later as a 21-and-under demonstration event in 1984. This reinstatement was credited by the efforts by the then ITF President Philippe Chatrier, ITF General Secretary David Gray and ITF Vice President Pablo Llorens, and support from IOC President Juan Antonio Samaranch. The success of the event was overwhelming and the IOC decided to reintroduce tennis as a full medal sport at Seoul in 1988.
The Davis Cup, an annual competition between men's national teams, dates to 1900.[20] The analogous competition for women's national teams, the Fed Cup, was founded as the Federation Cup in 1963 to celebrate the 50th anniversary of the founding of the ITF also known as International Tennis Federation.[21]
In 1926, promoter C.C. Pyle established the first professional tennis tour with a group of American and French tennis players playing exhibition matches to paying audiences.[17][22] The most notable of these early professionals were the American Vinnie Richards and the Frenchwoman Suzanne Lenglen.[17][23] Once a player turned pro he or she could not compete in the major (amateur) tournaments.[17]
In 1968, commercial pressures and rumors of some amateurs taking money under the table led to the abandonment of this distinction, inaugurating the open era, in which all players could compete in all tournaments, and top players were able to make their living from tennis.[24] With the beginning of the open era, the establishment of an international professional tennis circuit, and revenues from the sale of television rights, tennis's popularity has spread worldwide, and the sport has shed its upper/middle-class English-speaking image[25] (although it is acknowledged that this stereotype still exists).[25][26][27]
In 1954, Van Alen founded the International Tennis Hall of Fame, a non-profit museum in Newport, Rhode Island.[28] The building contains a large collection of tennis memorabilia as well as a hall of fame honoring prominent members and tennis players from all over the world. Each year, a grass-court tournament and an induction ceremony honoring new Hall of Fame members are hosted on its grounds.
Equipment
Part of the
appeal of tennis stems from the simplicity of equipment required for play.
Beginners need only a racquet
and balls.
Racquets
The
components of a tennis racquet include a handle, known as the grip, connected
to a neck which joins a roughly elliptical frame that holds a matrix of tightly
pulled strings. For the first 100 years of the modern game, racquets were of
wood and of standard size, and strings were of animal gut. Laminated wood
construction yielded more strength in racquets used through most of the 20th
century until first metal and then composites of carbon graphite, ceramics, and
lighter metals such as titanium were introduced. These stronger materials
enabled the production of oversized rackets that yielded yet more power.
Meanwhile technology led to the use of synthetic strings that match the feel of
gut yet with added durability.
Under
modern rules of tennis, the racquet must adhere to the following guidelines;[29]
- The hitting area, composed of
the strings, must be flat and generally uniform.
- The frame of the hitting area
may not be more than 29 inches in length and 12.5 inches in
width.
- The entire racquet must be of a
fixed shape, size, weight, and weight distribution. There may not be any
energy source built into the racquet.
- The racquet must not provide any kind of communication, instruction or advice to the player during the match.
The
rules regarding racquets have changed over time, as material and engineering
advances have been made. For example, the maximum length of the frame had been
32 inches until 1997, when it was shortened to 29 inches.[30]
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| A tennis racket. |
Balls
Tennis balls
are of hollow rubber with a felt coating. Traditionally white, the predominant
color was gradually changed to Optic Yellow in the latter part of the 20th
century to allow for improved visibility.
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| A Penn tennis ball. |
Miscellaneous
Advanced players improve
their performance through a number of accoutrements. Vibration dampers may be
interlaced in the proximal part of the string array for improved feel. Racket
handles may be customized with absorbent or rubber-like materials to improve
the players' grip. Players often use sweat bands on their wrists to keep their
hands dry as well. Finally, although the game can be played in a variety of
shoes, specialized tennis shoes have wide, flat soles for stability and a
built-up front structure to avoid excess wear.
Manner
of play
Court
Main article:
Tennis court
Tennis is played on a
rectangular, flat surface, usually grass, clay, a hardcourt of concrete and/or
asphalt and occasionally carpet (indoor). The court is 78 feet (23.77 m) long, and
27 feet (8.23 m) wide for singles matches and 36 ft
(10.97 m) for doubles matches.[31] Additional clear space
around the court is required in order for players to reach overrun balls. A net
is stretched across the full width of the court, parallel with the baselines,
dividing it into two equal ends. The net is 3 feet 6 inches
(1.07 m) high at the posts and 3 feet (91.4 cm) high in the
center.[31]The modern tennis court owes its design to Major Walter Clopton Wingfield who, in 1873, patented a court much the same as the current one for his stické tennis (sphairistike). This template was modified in 1875 to the court design that exists today, with markings similar to Wingfield's version, but with the hourglass shape of his court changed to a rectangle.[32]
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| The dimensions of a tennis court |
Lines
The lines that delineate the
width of the court are called the baseline (farthest back) and the service line
(middle of the court). The short mark in the center of each baseline is
referred to as either the hash mark or the center mark. The outermost lines
that make up the length are called the doubles sidelines. These are the
boundaries used when doubles is being played. The lines to the inside of the
doubles sidelines are the singles sidelines and are used as boundaries in
singles play. The area between a doubles sideline and the nearest singles
sideline is called the doubles alley, which is considered playable in doubles
play. The line that runs across the center of a player's side of the court is
called the service line because the serve must be delivered into the area
between the service line and the net on the receiving side. Despite its name,
this is not where a player legally stands when making a serve.[33] The line
dividing the service line in two is called the center line or center service
line. The boxes this center line creates are called the service boxes;
depending on a player's position, he or she will have to hit the ball into one
of these when serving.[34] A ball is out
only if none of it has hit the line or the area inside the lines upon its first
bounce. All the lines are required to be between 1 and 2 inches (51 mm) in
width. The baseline can be up to 4 inches (100 mm) wide if so desired.[33]
Play
of a single point
Main article:
Point (tennis)
The players (or teams) start
on opposite sides of the net. One player is designated the server, and
the opposing player is the receiver. Service alternates game by game
between the two players (or teams.) For each point, the server starts behind
their baseline, between the center mark and the sideline. The receiver may
start anywhere on their side of the net. When the receiver is ready, the server
will serve,
although the receiver must play to the pace of the server.In a legal service, the ball travels past the net (without touching it) and into the diagonally opposite service box. If the ball hits the net but lands in the service box, this is a let or net service, which is void, and the server gets to retake that serve. The player can serve any number of let services in a point and they are always treated as voids and not as faults. A fault is a serve that falls long or wide of the service box, or does not clear the net. There is also a "foot fault", which occurs when a player's foot touches the baseline or an extension of the center mark[35] before the ball is hit. If the second service is also a fault, the server double faults, and the receiver wins the point. However, if the serve is in, it is considered a legal service.
A legal service starts a rally, in which the players alternate hitting the ball across the net. A legal return consists of the player or team hitting the ball before it has bounced twice or hit any fixtures except the net, provided that it still falls in the server's court. A player or team cannot hit the ball twice in a row. The ball must travel past the net into the other players' court. A ball that hits the net during a rally is still considered a legal return. The first player or team to fail to make a legal return loses the point.
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| Two players before a serve |
Officials
In most professional play and some amateur competition, there is an officiating head judge or chair umpire (usually referred to as the umpire), who sits in a raised chair to one side of the court. The umpire has absolute authority to make factual determinations. The umpire may be assisted by line judges, who determine whether the ball has landed within the required part of the court and who also call foot faults. There also may be a net judge who determines whether the ball has touched the net during service. In some tournaments, certain line judges, those who would be calling the serve, are assisted by electronic sensors that beep when an out call would have been made. This was called "Cyclops;" however, since the introduction of Hawkeye technology, Cyclops is pretty much extinct now. In some professional tournaments, players are allowed to challenge a limited number of close calls by means of electronic review. The US Open, the Sony Ericsson Open in Key Biscayne, Florida, the US Open Series, and World Team Tennis started using a "challenge" system in 2006 and the Australian Open and Wimbledon introduced the system in 2007. This used the Hawk-Eye system and the rules were similar to those used in the NFL, a player may use unlimited challenges in a set, provided that he or she is not incorrect more than three times. In clay-court matches, such as at the French Open, a call may be questioned by reference to the mark left by the ball's impact on the court surface.
The referee, who is usually located off the court, is the final authority about tennis rules. When called to the court by a player or team captain, the referee may overrule the umpire's decision if the tennis rules were violated (question of law) but may not change the umpire's decision on a question of fact. If, however, the referee is on the court during play, the referee may overrule the umpire's decision (This would ONLY happen in Davis Cup or Fed Cup matches, not at the World Group level, when a chair umpire from a non-neutral country is in the chair).
Ball boys and girls may be employed to retrieve balls, pass them to the players, and hand players their towels. They have no adjudicative role. In rare events (e.g., if they are hurt or if they have caused a hindrance), the umpire may ask them for a statement of what actually happened. The umpire may consider their statements when making a decision. In some leagues, especially junior leagues, players make their own calls, trusting each other to be honest. This is the case for many school and university level matches. The referee or referee's assistant, however, can be called on court at a player's request, and the referee or assistant may change a player's call. In unofficiated matches, a ball is out only if the player entitled to make the call is sure that the ball is out.
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| Tim Henman preparing to hit a serve. The left arm is extended, having just launched the ball into the air. The right arm will be raised up and forward at speed so that the racquet connects with the ball |
Match
play
A tennis match is intended to
be continuous.[37] Because stamina is a
relevant factor, arbitrary delays are not permitted. In most cases, service is
required to occur no more than 20 seconds after the end of the previous point.[37] This is increased to 90
seconds when the players change ends (after every odd-numbered game), and a 2
minute break is permitted between sets.[37] Other than this, breaks
are permitted only when forced by events beyond the players' control, such as
rain, damaged footwear, damaged racquet, or the need to retrieve an errant
ball. Should a player be determined to be stalling repeatedly, the chair umpire
may initially give a warning followed by subsequent penalties of
"point", "game", and default of the match for the player
who is consistently taking longer than the allowed time limit.[38]In the event of a rain delay, darkness or other external conditions halting play, the match is resumed at a later time, with the same score as at the time of the delay, and the players at the same end of the court when rain halted play, or at the same position (north or south) if play is resumed on a different court.
Balls wear out quickly in serious play and, therefore, in ATP and WTA tournaments, they are changed after every nine games with the first change occurring after only seven games, because the first set of balls is also used for the pre-match warm-up.[39] As a courtesy to the receiver, the server will often signal to the receiver before the first serve of the game in which new balls are used as a reminder that they are using new balls. However, in ITF tournaments like Fed Cup, the balls are changed in a 9–11 style. Continuity of the balls' condition is considered part of the game, so if a re-warm-up is required after an extended break in play (usually due to rain), then the re-warm-up is done using a separate set of balls, and use of the match balls is resumed only when play resumes.
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| Roger Federer preparing to hit a forehand. He is "loading" his body weight on his back (right) foot and coiling his shoulders with the help of his left hand. From this position, he will "uncoil" his body beginning with his legs, progressing to his hips and then on to his arms. This is how the "modern" forehand, utilizing the open stance, is executed. |
A recent proposed rules change is to allow coaching on court during a match on a limited basis. This has been instituted in women's tennis for WTA Tour events from 2009 onwards.
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| Rafael Nadal performing a backhand volley |
Theams of tennis players while playing tennis
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