Hockey is a family of sports in which two teams play against each
other by trying to maneuver a ball or a puck into the opponent's
goal using a hockey
stick.
Etymology
The first
recorded use of the word "hockey" is found in the text of a royal
proclamation issued by Edward III of
England in 1363 banning certain types of sports and games.
The word hockey
itself is of unknown origin, although it is likely a derivative of hoquet,
a Middle French word for a
shepherd's stave.[2] The curved, or "hooked"
ends of the sticks used for hockey would indeed have resembled these staves.
Games played with curved sticks and a ball can be
found in the histories of many cultures. In Egypt, 4000-year-old carvings
feature teams with sticks and a projectile, hurling dates to before 1272 BC in
Ireland, and there is a depiction
from c.600 BC in Ancient
Greece where the game may have been called kerētízein or kerhtízein
(κερητίζειν) because it was played with a horn or horn-like stick(kéras,
κέρας)[3] In Inner Mongolia, China, the Daur
people have been playing beikou, a game
similar to modern field hockey, for about 1,000 years.[4] Most evidence of hockey-like
games during the Middle
Ages is found in legislation concerning sports and games. Similar to
Edward's proclamation was the Galway Statute enacted in Ireland in 1527, which
banned certain types of ball games, including hockey.
By the 19th
century, the various forms and divisions of historic games began to
differentiate and coalesce into the individual sports defined today.
Organizations dedicated to the codification of rules and regulations began to
form, and national and international bodies sprung up to manage domestic and
international competition. Ice hockey
also evolved during this period as a derivative of field hockey adapted to the
icy conditions of Canada and the northern United States.
Subtypes
Field
hockey
Field hockey is played on
gravel, natural grass, sand-based or water-based artificial turf, with a small,
hard ball. The game is popular among both males and females in many parts of
the world, particularly in Europe, Asia, Australia,
New Zealand and South Africa. In most countries,
the game is played between single-sex sides, although they can be mixed-sex. The governing body is the
116-member International Hockey Federation (FIH). Men's field hockey has
been played at each summer Olympic Games since 1908 (except 1912 and 1924), while
women's field hockey has been played at the Summer Olympic Games since 1980. Modern field
hockey sticks are J-shaped and constructed of a composite of wood,
glass fibre or carbon fibre (sometimes both) and have a curved hook at the
playing end, a flat surface on the playing side and curved surface on the rear
side. While current field hockey appeared in the mid-18th century in England, primarily in schools, it
was not until the first half of the 19th century that it became firmly
established. The first club was created in 1849 at Blackheath
in south-east London. Field hockey is the national sport of India and Pakistan.[6]
Ice hockey is played on a large
flat area of ice, using a three-inch-diameter (76.2 mm) vulcanized rubber disc called a puck. This puck is often frozen
before high-level games to decrease the amount of bouncing and friction on the
ice. The game is contested between two teams of skaters. The game is played all
over North America, Europe and in many other countries around the world to
varying extent. It is the most popular sport in Canada, Finland,
Latvia, the Czech Republic, and in Slovakia. The governing body of
international play is the 66-member International Ice Hockey Federation (IIHF). Men's ice hockey
has been played at the Winter Olympics since 1924, and was in the 1920
Summer Olympics. Women's ice hockey was added to the Winter
Olympics in 1998. North America's National
Hockey League (NHL) is the strongest professional ice hockey league,
drawing top ice hockey players from around the globe. The NHL rules are
slightly different from those used in Olympic ice hockey over many categories. Ice hockey sticks are long
L-shaped sticks made of wood, graphite, or composites
with a blade at the bottom that can lie flat on the playing surface when the
stick is held upright and can curve either way, legally, as to help a left- or right-handed player gain an
advantage. There are early
representations and reports of ice hockey-type games being played on ice in the
Netherlands, and reports from Canada from the beginning of the nineteenth century, but the
modern game was initially organized by students at McGill University, Montreal in 1875 who, by two years
later, codified the first set of ice hockey rules and organized the first
teams. Ice hockey is played at a
number of levels, by all ages.
Inline hockey is a
variation of roller
hockey very similar to ice hockey, from which it
is derived. Inline hockey is played by two teams, consisting of four skaters
and one goalie, on a dry rink divided into two halves by a center line, with
one net at each end of the rink. The game is played in three 15-minute periods
with a variation of the ice hockey off-side rule. Icings are also called, but
are usually referred to as illegal clearing. For rink dimensions and an
overview of the rules of the game, see IIHF Inline Rules (official rules). Some
leagues and competitions do not follow the IIHF regulations, in particular USA Inline and Canada Inline.
Rink hockey - Rollhockey - Hoquei em Patins
Roller
hockey
Roller hockey, also known as
quad hockey, international-style ball hockey, and Hoquei em Patins is an
overarching name for a roller sport that has existed since long before inline
skates were invented. This sport is played in over sixty countries and has a
worldwide following. Roller hockey was a demonstration sport at the 1992 Barcelona Summer Olympics.
Sledge
hockey
Sledge hockey is a form of ice
hockey designed for players with physical disabilities affecting their lower
bodies. Players sit on double-bladed sledges and use two
sticks; each stick has a blade at one end and small picks at the other. Players
use the sticks to pass, stickhandle and shoot the puck, and to propel their
sledges. The rules are very similar to IIHF ice hockey rules.[7] Canada is a recognized international leader in the
development of the sport, and of equipment for players. Much of the equipment
for the sport was first developed in Canada, such as sledge hockey sticks laminated with fiberglass, as well as aluminum
shafts with hand carved insert blades and special aluminum sledges with
regulation skate blades. Based on ice sledge hockey,
inline sledge hockey is played to the same rules as inline puck hockey
(essentially ice hockey played off ice using inline skates) and has been made
possible by the design and manufacture of inline sledges by RGK, Europe’s
premier sports wheelchair maker. There is no classification point
system dictating who can play inline sledge hockey, unlike the situation with
other team sports such as wheelchair basketball and wheelchair rugby. Inline
sledge hockey is being developed to allow everyone, regardless of whether they
have a disability or not, to complete up to world championship level based
solely on talent and ability. This makes inline sledge hockey truly inclusive. The first game of inline
sledge hockey was played at Bisley, England, on the 19th of December 2009
between the Hull Stingrays and the Grimsby Redwings. Matt Lloyd is credited with inventing inline sledge hockey,
and Great Britain is seen as the international leader in the game's
development.
Tennis is a sport usually played between two players (singles)
or between two teams of two players each (doubles).
Each player uses a racket
that is strung to strike a hollow rubber ball covered with felt over a net
into the opponent's court.
Tennis is an Olympic
sport and is played at all levels of society at all ages. The sport can be
played by anyone who can hold a racket, including people in wheelchairs. The modern game of tennis
originated in Birmingham,
England in the late 19th century
as "lawn tennis" which has close connections to various
field/lawn games as well as to the ancient game of real tennis. Up to then,
"tennis" referred to the latter sport: for example, in Disraeli's novel Sybil (1845), Lord Eugene De
Vere announces that he will "go down to Hampton Court and play tennis. As it is the Derby [classic horse race], nobody
will be there".[1] After its creation, lawn tennis spread throughout
the upper-class English-speaking population before spreading around the world.[2] The rules of tennis have not
changed much since the 1890s. Two exceptions are that from 1908 to 1961 the
server had to keep one foot on the ground at all times, and the adoption of the
tie-break
in the 1970s. A recent addition to professional tennis has been the adoption of
electronic review technology coupled with a point challenge system, which allows
a player to challenge the line (or chair) umpire's call of a point. Players
have unlimited opportunities to challenge provided the challenges made are
correct. However, once three incorrect challenges are made in a set, they
cannot challenge again until the next set. If the set goes to a tie break,
players are given one additional opportunity to challenge the call. This
electronic review, currently called Hawk-Eye, is available at a limited
number of high-level ATP and WTA
tournaments. Tennis is enjoyed by millions
of recreational players and is also a hugely popular worldwide spectator sport,
especially the four Grand Slam
tournaments (also referred to as the "Majors"): the Australian Open played on hard
courts, the French
Open played on red clay courts, Wimbledon
played on grass courts, and the US Open
played also on hard courts.
History
While the modern game of
tennis originated in late 19th century England, most historians believe that
the games ancient origin is from 12th century France, but the ball was then
struck with the palm of the hand. It was not until the 16th century that rackets came into use, and the
game began to be called "tennis", from the Old French term Tenez,
which can be translated as "hold!", "receive!" or
"take!". An interjection
used as a call from the server to his opponent.[3] It was popular in England and France, although the
game was only played indoors where the ball could be hit off the wall. Henry
VIII of England was a big fan of this game, which is now known as real tennis.[4] During the 18th century and early 19th century, as
real tennis declined, new racquets sports emerged in England.[5] Between 1859 and 1865 Harry Gem and his friend Augurio Perera developed a game
that combined elements of rackets
and the Basque ball game pelota,
which they played on Perera's croquet
lawn in Birmingham, United Kingdom.[6][7] In 1872, along with two
local doctors, they founded the world's first tennis club in Leamington Spa.[8]
Lawn tennis in the U.S., 1887
In December 1873, Major Walter
Clopton Wingfield designed and patented a similar game — which he
called sphairistike (Greek: σφάίρίστική, from ancient Greek meaning
"skill at playing at ball"), and was soon known simply as
"sticky" — for the amusement of his guests at a garden party on his
estate of Nantclwyd, in Llanelidan, Wales.[9] Sport historians agree that Wingfield deserves much
of the credit for the development of modern tennis.[5][10] The world's oldest tennis tournament, the Wimbledon
championships, were first played in London in 1877.[11][12] The first Championships
culminated a significant debate on how to standardize the rules. In America in 1874 Mary
Ewing Outerbridge, a young socialite, returned from Bermuda where
she met Major Wingfield. She laid out a tennis court at the Staten
Island Cricket Club in New Brighton Staten Island, New York. The
exact location of the club was under what is now the Staten Island Ferry
terminal. The first American National tournament in 1880 was played there. An
Englishman named O.E Woodhouse won the singles match. There was also a doubles
match which was won by a local pair. There were different rules at each club.
The ball in Boston was larger than the one normally used in NY. On May 21,
1881, the United States National Lawn Tennis Association (now the United States Tennis Association) was formed to standardize
the rules and organize competitions.[13] The U.S. National Men's
Singles Championship, now the US Open,
was first held in 1881 at Newport,
Rhode Island.[14] The U.S. National Women's Singles Championships
were first held in 1887.[15] Tennis was also popular in France, where the French Open dates to 1891.[16] Thus, Wimbledon, the US
Open, the French Open, and the Australian Open (dating to 1905)
became and have remained the most prestigious events in tennis.[12][17] Together these four
events are called the Majors or Slams (a term borrowed from bridge rather than baseball).[18] The comprehensive rules promulgated in 1924 by the
International Lawn Tennis Federation, now known as the International Tennis Federation, have remained largely stable
in the ensuing eighty years, the one major change being the addition of the tie-break
system designed by James
Van Alen.[19] That same year, tennis withdrew from the Olympics
after the 1924 Games but returned 60 years later as a 21-and-under
demonstration event in 1984. This reinstatement was credited by the efforts by
the then ITF President Philippe Chatrier, ITF General Secretary David Gray and
ITF Vice President Pablo Llorens, and support from IOC President Juan Antonio
Samaranch. The success of the event was overwhelming and the IOC decided to
reintroduce tennis as a full medal sport at Seoul in 1988. The Davis Cup, an annual competition
between men's national teams, dates to 1900.[20] The analogous competition for women's national
teams, the Fed Cup, was founded as the
Federation Cup in 1963 to celebrate the 50th anniversary of the founding of the
ITF also known as International Tennis Federation.[21] In 1926, promoter C.C. Pyle
established the first professional tennis tour with a group of American and
French tennis players playing exhibition matches to paying audiences.[17][22] The most notable of these early professionals were
the American Vinnie
Richards and the Frenchwoman Suzanne Lenglen.[17][23] Once a player turned pro he or she could
not compete in the major (amateur) tournaments.[17] In 1968, commercial pressures
and rumors of some amateurs taking money under the table led to the abandonment
of this distinction, inaugurating the open era, in which all players
could compete in all tournaments, and top players were able to make their
living from tennis.[24] With the beginning of the open era, the
establishment of an international professional tennis circuit, and revenues
from the sale of television rights, tennis's popularity has spread worldwide,
and the sport has shed its upper/middle-class English-speaking image[25] (although it is
acknowledged that this stereotype still exists).[25][26][27] In 1954, Van Alen founded the
International Tennis Hall of Fame, a non-profit museum in
Newport, Rhode Island.[28] The building contains a large collection of tennis
memorabilia as well as a hall of fame honoring prominent members and tennis
players from all over the world. Each year, a grass-court tournament and an
induction ceremony honoring new Hall of Fame members are hosted on its grounds.
Equipment
Part of the
appeal of tennis stems from the simplicity of equipment required for play.
Beginners need only a racquet
and balls.
Racquets
The
components of a tennis racquet include a handle, known as the grip, connected
to a neck which joins a roughly elliptical frame that holds a matrix of tightly
pulled strings. For the first 100 years of the modern game, racquets were of
wood and of standard size, and strings were of animal gut. Laminated wood
construction yielded more strength in racquets used through most of the 20th
century until first metal and then composites of carbon graphite, ceramics, and
lighter metals such as titanium were introduced. These stronger materials
enabled the production of oversized rackets that yielded yet more power.
Meanwhile technology led to the use of synthetic strings that match the feel of
gut yet with added durability.
Under
modern rules of tennis, the racquet must adhere to the following guidelines;[29]
The hitting area, composed of
the strings, must be flat and generally uniform.
The frame of the hitting area
may not be more than 29 inches in length and 12.5 inches in
width.
The entire racquet must be of a
fixed shape, size, weight, and weight distribution. There may not be any
energy source built into the racquet.
The racquet must not provide
any kind of communication, instruction or advice to the player during the
match.
The
rules regarding racquets have changed over time, as material and engineering
advances have been made. For example, the maximum length of the frame had been
32 inches until 1997, when it was shortened to 29 inches.[30]
A tennis racket.
Balls
Tennis balls
are of hollow rubber with a felt coating. Traditionally white, the predominant
color was gradually changed to Optic Yellow in the latter part of the 20th
century to allow for improved visibility.
Advanced players improve
their performance through a number of accoutrements. Vibration dampers may be
interlaced in the proximal part of the string array for improved feel. Racket
handles may be customized with absorbent or rubber-like materials to improve
the players' grip. Players often use sweat bands on their wrists to keep their
hands dry as well. Finally, although the game can be played in a variety of
shoes, specialized tennis shoes have wide, flat soles for stability and a
built-up front structure to avoid excess wear.
Tennis is played on a
rectangular, flat surface, usually grass, clay, a hardcourt of concrete and/or
asphalt and occasionally carpet (indoor). The court is 78 feet (23.77 m) long, and
27 feet (8.23 m) wide for singles matches and 36 ft
(10.97 m) for doubles matches.[31] Additional clear space
around the court is required in order for players to reach overrun balls. A net
is stretched across the full width of the court, parallel with the baselines,
dividing it into two equal ends. The net is 3 feet 6 inches
(1.07 m) high at the posts and 3 feet (91.4 cm) high in the
center.[31] The modern tennis court owes
its design to Major Walter
Clopton Wingfield who, in 1873, patented a court much the same as
the current one for his stické tennis
(sphairistike). This template was modified in 1875 to the court design that
exists today, with markings similar to Wingfield's version, but with the hourglass shape of his court
changed to a rectangle.[32]
The dimensions of a tennis court
Lines
The lines that delineate the
width of the court are called the baseline (farthest back) and the service line
(middle of the court). The short mark in the center of each baseline is
referred to as either the hash mark or the center mark. The outermost lines
that make up the length are called the doubles sidelines. These are the
boundaries used when doubles is being played. The lines to the inside of the
doubles sidelines are the singles sidelines and are used as boundaries in
singles play. The area between a doubles sideline and the nearest singles
sideline is called the doubles alley, which is considered playable in doubles
play. The line that runs across the center of a player's side of the court is
called the service line because the serve must be delivered into the area
between the service line and the net on the receiving side. Despite its name,
this is not where a player legally stands when making a serve.[33] The line
dividing the service line in two is called the center line or center service
line. The boxes this center line creates are called the service boxes;
depending on a player's position, he or she will have to hit the ball into one
of these when serving.[34] A ball is out
only if none of it has hit the line or the area inside the lines upon its first
bounce. All the lines are required to be between 1 and 2 inches (51 mm) in
width. The baseline can be up to 4 inches (100 mm) wide if so desired.[33]
The players (or teams) start
on opposite sides of the net. One player is designated the server, and
the opposing player is the receiver. Service alternates game by game
between the two players (or teams.) For each point, the server starts behind
their baseline, between the center mark and the sideline. The receiver may
start anywhere on their side of the net. When the receiver is ready, the server
will serve,
although the receiver must play to the pace of the server. In a legal service, the ball
travels past the net (without touching it) and into the diagonally opposite
service box. If the ball hits the net but lands in the service box, this is a let
or net service, which is void, and the server gets to retake that serve.
The player can serve any number of let services in a point and they are always
treated as voids and not as faults. A fault is a serve that falls long or wide
of the service box, or does not clear the net. There is also a "foot
fault", which occurs when a player's foot touches the baseline or an
extension of the center mark[35] before the ball is hit. If the second service is
also a fault, the server double faults, and the receiver wins the point.
However, if the serve is in, it is considered a legal service. A legal service starts a rally,
in which the players alternate hitting the ball across the net. A legal return
consists of the player or team hitting the ball before it has bounced twice or
hit any fixtures except the net, provided that it still falls in the server's
court. A player or team cannot hit the ball twice in a row. The ball must
travel past the net into the other players' court. A ball that hits the net
during a rally is still considered a legal return. The first player or team to
fail to make a legal return loses the point.
Two players before a serve
Officials
In most professional play and
some amateur competition, there is an officiating head judge or chair umpire
(usually referred to as the umpire), who sits in a raised chair to one side of
the court. The umpire has absolute authority to make factual determinations.
The umpire may be assisted by line judges, who determine whether the ball has
landed within the required part of the court and who also call foot faults.
There also may be a net judge who determines whether the ball has touched the
net during service. In some tournaments, certain line judges, those who would
be calling the serve, are assisted by electronic sensors that beep when an out
call would have been made. This was called "Cyclops;" however, since
the introduction of Hawkeye technology, Cyclops is pretty much extinct now. In
some professional tournaments, players are allowed to challenge a limited
number of close calls by means of electronic review. The US Open,
the Sony Ericsson Open in Key
Biscayne, Florida, the US Open
Series, and World
Team Tennis started using a "challenge" system in 2006 and
the Australian
Open and Wimbledon
introduced the system in 2007. This used the Hawk-Eye system and the rules were
similar to those used in the NFL,
a player may use unlimited challenges in a set, provided that he or she is not
incorrect more than three times. In clay-court matches, such as at the French Open, a call may be
questioned by reference to the mark left by the ball's impact on the court
surface. The referee, who is usually
located off the court, is the final authority about tennis rules. When called
to the court by a player or team captain, the referee may overrule the umpire's
decision if the tennis rules were violated (question of law) but may not change
the umpire's decision on a question of fact. If, however, the referee is on the
court during play, the referee may overrule the umpire's decision (This would
ONLY happen in Davis Cup or Fed Cup matches, not at the World Group level, when
a chair umpire from a non-neutral country is in the chair). Ball boys and girls may be
employed to retrieve balls, pass them to the players, and hand players their
towels. They have no adjudicative
role. In rare events (e.g., if they are hurt or if they have caused a
hindrance), the umpire may ask them for a statement of what actually happened.
The umpire may consider their statements when making a decision. In some
leagues, especially junior leagues, players make their own calls, trusting each
other to be honest. This is the case for many school and university level
matches. The referee or referee's assistant, however, can be called on court at
a player's request, and the referee or assistant may change a player's call. In
unofficiated matches, a ball is out only if the player entitled to make the
call is sure that the ball is out. .
Tim Henman
preparing to hit a serve. The left arm is extended, having just
launched the ball into the air. The right arm will be raised up and
forward at speed so that the racquet connects with the ball
Match
play
A tennis match is intended to
be continuous.[37] Because stamina is a
relevant factor, arbitrary delays are not permitted. In most cases, service is
required to occur no more than 20 seconds after the end of the previous point.[37] This is increased to 90
seconds when the players change ends (after every odd-numbered game), and a 2
minute break is permitted between sets.[37] Other than this, breaks
are permitted only when forced by events beyond the players' control, such as
rain, damaged footwear, damaged racquet, or the need to retrieve an errant
ball. Should a player be determined to be stalling repeatedly, the chair umpire
may initially give a warning followed by subsequent penalties of
"point", "game", and default of the match for the player
who is consistently taking longer than the allowed time limit.[38] In the event of a rain delay,
darkness or other external conditions halting play, the match is resumed at a
later time, with the same score as at the time of the delay, and the players at
the same end of the court when rain halted play, or at the same position (north
or south) if play is resumed on a different court. Balls wear out quickly in
serious play and, therefore, in ATP and WTA
tournaments, they are changed after every nine games with the first change
occurring after only seven games, because the first set of balls is also used
for the pre-match warm-up.[39] As a courtesy to the receiver, the server will
often signal to the receiver before the first serve of the game in which new
balls are used as a reminder that they are using new balls. However, in ITF tournaments like Fed Cup, the balls are changed in
a 9–11 style. Continuity of the balls' condition is considered part of the
game, so if a re-warm-up is required after an extended break in play (usually
due to rain), then the re-warm-up is done using a separate set of balls, and
use of the match balls is resumed only when play resumes.
Roger Federer
preparing to hit a forehand. He is "loading" his body weight on his
back (right) foot and coiling his shoulders with the help of his left
hand. From this position, he will "uncoil" his body beginning with his
legs, progressing to his hips and then on to his arms. This is how the
"modern" forehand, utilizing the open stance, is executed.
A recent proposed rules
change is to allow coaching on court during a match on a limited basis. This
has been instituted in women's tennis for WTA Tour events from 2009 onwards.
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